KNOWLEDGE - International Journal is an international, high quality, peer-reviewed, open access journal publishing the newest research and good practices on the basis of their originality, importance, interdisciplinarity and impact. The journal publishes research papers in all fields covered by the Frascati classification - Social sciences, Humanities, Medical sciences and health, Biotechnical sciences, Technical and technological sciences and Natural and mathematical sciences.
ALTERNATIVE TYPES OF TOURISM AS THE BASIS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN OHRID
The Ohrid region represents one of the most important tourism destinations in the Republic of N. Macedonia. As a UNESCO World Heritage Site it possesses tourism values that simultaneously create opportunities for economic development and challenges related to heritage preservation and sustainable management. Tourism plays a significant role in the local economy of the Municipality of Ohrid, contributing to employment, regional development, and the diversification of economic activities. However, the rapid growth of tourism, particularly during the summer months, has led to increasing pressures on the environmental, cultural, and social systems. Concerns related to uncontrolled urbanization, traffic congestion, pollution, and overcrowding have raised warnings about the potential inclusion of the Ohrid region on the List of World Heritage in Danger. In this context, sustainable tourism planning and diversification of tourism products represent essential priorities for preserving the Outstanding Universal Value of the region while maintaining its competitiveness as a tourism destination. The aim of this research is to identify and valorize tourism resources within the Municipality of Ohrid that could support the development of alternative and sustainable types of tourism while reducing the spatial and temporal concentration of visitors in the most sensitive tourism sites. The study is the result of the research activities conducted during the preparation of the Strategy for Development of Tourism in the Municipality of Ohrid (2020–2025). A comprehensive methodological approach was applied, including situation analysis, statistical analysis of tourist arrivals and overnight stays, accommodation capacities occupancy rates, and making an inventory and valorization of natural and cultural tourism resources. The results indicate several structural characteristics of tourism development in Ohrid. Tourism activity in the municipality is characterized by strong seasonality, with the highest accommodation occupancy rates recorded during July and August. Additionally, tourism activity is spatially concentrated primarily in the historic city core and the lakeside areas, which contain the majority of the most recognizable cultural and natural attractions. Despite these challenges, the research identified significant opportunities for tourism diversification and spatial redistribution of visitor flows. Several development zones within the municipality possess valuable natural, cultural, and rural resources suitable for alternative tourism development. Rural areas demonstrate considerable potential for agro-tourism, eco-tourism, and gastronomy-based tourism experiences through the use of local farms, traditional food production, forest resources, and authentic rural lifestyles. Cultural and religious heritage assets, including cave churches located along the eastern lakeside cliffs, represent important opportunities for expanding cultural tourism through appropriate conservation and visitor management measures. Furthermore, there are favorable climatic conditions, scenic landscapes, and opportunities for recreation, wellness tourism, and short-stay experiences based on outdoor activities and cultural events. The results suggest that sustainable tourism development in Ohrid requires a balanced strategic approach that combines heritage protection, diversification of tourism products, spatial redistribution of visitor flows, and improved destination management and marketing practices. By promoting underutilized tourism resources and strengthening rural tourism initiatives, the Municipality of Ohrid can reduce overtourism pressures while enhancing visitor experiences and ensuring the long-term sustainability of tourism development.
DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN LOGISTICS: INVESTMENT BARRIERS, COST STRUCTURES, AND STRATEGIC OPPORTUNITIES
The rapid development of digital technologies has significantly influenced the transformation of logistics systems, reshaping operational models, cost structures, and strategic decision-making processes within supply chains. In the context of emerging and transition economies, digital transformation in logistics presents both opportunities and structural challenges. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive theoretical overview of existing research on digital transformation in logistics in the Republic of North Macedonia and the broader Southeast European region, with a particular focus on investment barriers, cost structures, and strategic opportunities for companies operating in this sector. The study is based on a qualitative research approach that relies on a systematic review and synthesis of relevant academic literature, institutional reports, and previously published empirical studies addressing logistics digitalization in the regional context. Through comparative and analytical methods, the paper examines the dominant themes and findings in the existing body of research, identifying the main financial, technological, and organizational factors influencing the adoption of digital logistics solutions. The analysis indicates that companies in North Macedonia and the surrounding region face several structural constraints that hinder the implementation of advanced digital logistics technologies. Among the most frequently identified barriers are high initial investment costs, limited access to financial resources, insufficient digital infrastructure, and a shortage of specialized human capital capable of supporting digital transformation processes. In addition, the literature emphasizes the complexity of the cost structures associated with digital logistics systems, including capital expenditures for technological infrastructure as well as ongoing operational costs related to system maintenance, employee training, and organizational restructuring. Despite these challenges, previous studies highlight significant strategic opportunities resulting from the adoption of digital logistics solutions. The integration of technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT), and advanced data analytics can improve supply chain transparency, enhance operational efficiency, reduce long-term logistics costs, and strengthen the competitive position of firms in regional and international markets. The contribution of this paper lies in synthesizing and systematizing the existing knowledge on digital transformation in logistics within North Macedonia and the Southeast European region. By identifying key investment barriers, cost implications, and strategic opportunities, the study provides a conceptual foundation for future empirical research and offers insights that may support policymakers, researchers, and business practitioners in designing more effective strategies for the sustainable digital transformation of logistics systems.
INFLATION DIFFERENTIAL BEETWEN EURO AREA AND NORTH MACEDONIA
The main purpose of this study is to make a comparative analysis of the inflation differences between euro area and North Macedonia and to propose a simple model for inflation calculation for the North Macedonian economy by using an OLS regression of several explanatory variable to estimate the inflation level. Since the common currency was establish by the European countries the monetary policy is conducted by the European Central Bank (ECB) with the primarily goal of price stability i.e. low inflation, by considering the interest of all members of the European Monetary Union (EMU). The focus of the ECB on low inflation pressured the governments of various euro zone countries to develop the appropriate models to measures inflation and respond in time to shocks that may affect them. Historically, since its creation, the ECB has made a good effort in containing the inflation within the boundaries of 2% annually. On the other note it cannot be stated that this is the case for the North Macedonian National Bank, where inflation is subject to considerable variations. First a comparative method is used to show the evolution of inflation differentials between euro area and North Macedonia for the period 2000-2024. Inflation, is calculated as annual percentage of consumers price. From 2000 inflation differentials where increasing until 2009, reaching a minimum in 2004 and a peak in the year 2008. Afterwards the inflation dispersion decreased until 2021, before the COVID pandemic, there was a temporary upsurge to reach its peak in 2022, passing the 2008 level, before decreasing again in 2024. The other approach taken in this paper is to present a model for inflation calculation based on the formulation by Honohan et al. (2003) and Angeloni and Ehrmann (2004). The economy of North Macedonia is modeled only as an aggregate supply where inflation is depended on past and expected inflation, domestic output gap, and the real effective exchange rate weighted by the appropriate trade share of the North Macedonian economy. From all the explanatory variables of the model only the effective exchange rate is statistically significant at the 5% level, meaning that the association between Inflation and Reer is significant. Apart from the explanatory variables, the constant -97.36 is statistically significant at 10% level and represents the expected average level of inflation in the case where each independent variable is null. The study, culminated by creating a least square model to detect the relationships between various explanatory variables and inflation. The same model identifies that only the effective exchange rate is significant at 5% level and all the other variables although they are important in explaining inflation they are not statistically significant. From this study, it can be also concluded that it does not include all the macroeconomic factors that influence inflation. The determinants used in the model have an R squared of only 0.386 which means that they explain only 38.6% of Inflation.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF STRATEGIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR TO THE CREATION OF PUBLIC VALUE
The contemporary transformation of public administration requires governance models capable of responding to complex social, technological, and economic challenges. Strategic entrepreneurship has emerged as an approach that integrates strategic management and entrepreneurial thinking in order to stimulate innovation and create sustainable public value. The present study explores the contribution of strategic entrepreneurship to the development of public value within modern public sector organizations. The research is based on a conceptual and analytical approach that includes a review of contemporary literature, examination of international good practices, and analysis of the institutional context of Bulgarian public administration. The findings indicate that strategic entrepreneurship contributes to public value creation through several interconnected mechanisms. These include innovation management, which enables the introduction of new technologies and administrative solutions; leadership and organizational culture, which foster creativity, learning, and adaptability; public-private partnerships, which combine public accountability with private sector expertise; network governance, which promotes collaboration among institutions, businesses, and civil society; and digital transformation, which accelerates transparency, efficiency, and citizen participation. The analysis also demonstrates that strategic entrepreneurship represents more than a managerial technique. It functions as a strategic orientation that transforms public organizations into adaptive and learning systems capable of generating long-term societal benefits. In the Bulgarian context, the development of strategic entrepreneurship is increasingly linked to initiatives related to digital governance, innovation ecosystems, and the implementation of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan. Despite these positive developments, challenges remain, including bureaucratic inertia, insufficient motivational mechanisms, and limited evaluation of public value outcomes. The study concludes that strengthening entrepreneurial capacity in the public sector is essential for achieving effective governance, sustainable development, and increased public trust. Strategic entrepreneurship therefore represents a key driver of institutional modernization and a central mechanism for transforming public administration into a system oriented toward innovation, collaboration, and citizen-centered value creation.
DIGITAL LITERACY AS A FACTOR FOR SOCIAL INCLUSION: EVIDENCE FROM AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
The rapid digitalization of contemporary societies has transformed access to information, education, public services, and labor markets, making digital literacy a key prerequisite for social participation. However, significant inequalities persist in individuals’ ability to use digital technologies in meaningful ways, particularly among adult learners and population groups exposed to digital exclusion. The present study examines digital literacy as a factor for social inclusion through an empirical survey conducted among 125 adult respondents. A quantitative cross-sectional research design was applied, using a structured questionnaire based on internationally recognized digital competence frameworks. Digital literacy and social inclusion were measured through composite indices capturing digital skills, access to technologies, use of online services, and perceived social connectedness. The results indicate moderate overall levels of digital literacy and social inclusion, with notable disparities across age groups and competence domains. Higher digital literacy is significantly associated with increased use of online public services, participation in online learning and employment-related activities, and stronger social connectedness. Correlation and regression analyses confirm that digital literacy is a significant predictor of social inclusion, even when controlling for age, education, and employment status. At the same time, respondents identified key barriers to digital participation, including lack of skills, fear of online risks, insufficient guidance, and financial constraints. The findings highlight that digital inclusion is a multidimensional process shaped by the interaction of skills, access, confidence, and supportive environments. The study contributes empirical evidence to ongoing debates on digital inequality and underscores the need for integrated policies combining adult education, accessible support mechanisms, and user-centered digital services to promote inclusive participation in digital societies.
HUMAN CAPITAL, PROFITS, WAGES AND PRODUCTIVITY
Human capital represents one of the most important determinants of productivity growth and financial performance in modern economies. While traditional economic perspectives have primarily focused on education and technical skills, contemporary research increasingly emphasizes the importance of behavioural and social capacities such as motivation, cooperation, adaptability, and communication. These characteristics influence how individuals perform tasks, interact within organizations, and respond to technological change, thereby shaping productivity outcomes and the creation of economic value within firms. This paper examines the relationship between human capital development, labour productivity, wage dynamics, and firm profitability. The analysis is based on a qualitative and literature-based approach that synthesizes theoretical and empirical contributions from labour economics, productivity research, and studies on firm performance. The findings suggest that investments in human capital significantly improve labour productivity and organizational efficiency. Higher productivity allows firms to increase output, improve operational performance, and strengthen their competitiveness in domestic and international markets. As a result, productivity improvements contribute to stronger financial performance and higher firm profitability. However, recent economic evidence indicates that productivity growth is not always accompanied by proportional wage growth. In several economies, productivity has increased more rapidly than wages, suggesting that firms may capture a larger share of productivity gains through higher profits. This development raises important questions regarding the distribution of economic value generated through human capital and productivity improvements. Understanding how human capabilities are transformed into productivity and financial value is therefore essential for both firms and policymakers. Investments in human capital can support sustainable productivity growth and long-term financial performance, but their broader economic impact depends on how the benefits of this growth are distributed within modern economic systems.
ETHICS, ARTIFICIAL INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ACCOUNTING
Accounting can be defined as a science that provides knowledge about the life and activities of various business entities. Through it, all business operations and processes occurring in the organization are registered and reported, as well as periodic financial reports are prepared for them, and analysis of transactions in monetary terms is carried out. For this purpose, a number of requirements must be observed, defined by law as standards and certain rules, or accounting principles. Accounting enables organizations to analyze their financial results of operations based on various indicators, striving for profit, and it can be said that it is the "soul or language of business", as it provides information about assets, liabilities, capital, revenues, expenses and cash flows, which is used by various users to make economic decisions. Since its inception in 1494, thanks to L. Pacioli, it has been continuously developing and improving to this day, and we are already talking about digital accounting and the application of artificial intelligence in it. The main functions of accounting are information, control, reporting and analytical, which support the making of justified management decisions, compliance with legislation and ensure transparency for all external users of information. Here the question of ethics in accounting also arises, because it serves first and foremost the owner of capital, but the social focus and ethics oblige it to also take into account creditors, customers, staff, tax authorities, and the state. According to the Accounting Academy, the important ethical obligations in accounting are - transparency, responsibility and honest and fair presentation of information about the organization's activities. This is largely achieved by the application and observance of various personal ethical values and codes of ethics by accountants, but how and what ethics to expect from artificial intelligence when applied in accounting, there is still no adequate answer. AI ethics refers to the study of the moral and ethical issues that arise in the development, implementation and use of artificial intelligence systems. It aims to ensure that these systems benefit society and do not cause harm, encompassing a set of principles, guidelines and practices aimed at ensuring that AI systems are developed and used in a responsible, transparent and safe manner that benefits people and society. But despite UNESCO recommendations that prioritize human rights, human oversight, fairness and transparency, as well as the OECD principles for artificial intelligence that aim for artificial intelligence that respects democratic values, there is no guarantee that AI in accounting will comply with ethics and ethical norms, which raises the question of how much society and information users will be able to trust the information it provides!
MACROECONOMIC APPROACH TO OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH IN NORTH MACEDONIA AND NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES
Occupational safety and health are a significant factor for sustainable economic development, labor productivity and protection of human capital. Occupational injuries and diseases create not only health and social consequences, but also a significant economic burden through direct and indirect costs that affect national economies. Hence, occupational safety is increasingly considered as an integral part of macroeconomic policies and strategies for sustainable development. The aim of this paper is to analyze the macroeconomic approach to occupational safety and health through a comparative analysis of national policies, institutional frameworks and statistical indicators of occupational injuries in North Macedonia, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria. The research aims to determine whether differences in the strategic orientations and institutional set-up of the countries are associated with different outcomes in terms of workplace safety. The research has a cross-sectional, comparative and descriptive-analytical design and is based on the analysis of secondary data. A document analysis and comparative method were used, analyzing national strategies, legislation and official statistical reports for 2023 and 2024 as the latest available period. The data were processed with descriptive statistics by calculating the rates of serious and fatal injuries per 100,000 employees. The results show that there are differences between the analyzed countries in terms of the number and rates of work-related injuries. The highest rate of serious injuries was registered in Serbia (152.5 per 100,000 employees), while the lowest in Bulgaria (77.9). North Macedonia recorded a rate of 105.8, and Greece 99.5 per 100,000 employees. In terms of fatal injuries, the highest rate was recorded in Bulgaria (3.19), followed by Serbia (1.60) and Greece (0.79), while in North Macedonia no fatal injuries were recorded in the analyzed period. Although national data on economic costs are not available, international estimates indicate that work-related injuries can cause economic losses of up to 3.3% of gross domestic product annually. The comparative analysis of the strategic documents shows that all countries recognize occupational safety and health as an important economic factor, but there are differences in the degree of integration of OSH into national economic policies and the institutional capacity for their implementation. The Member States of the European Union demonstrate a more integrated approach, while North Macedonia and Serbia are focused on institutional strengthening and harmonization with European standards. In conclusion, occupational safety and health represent an important macroeconomic category that affects productivity, public spending and the sustainability of the labor market. The results indicate the need for further strengthening of preventive policies, improvement of recording systems and integration of economic evaluation into national occupational safety policies.
THE NATIONAL BANK OF ALBANIA AND THE AGREEMENT WITH ITALY ON THE SVEA LOAN DURING THE YEARS OF THE ALBANIAN REPUBLIC, 1925–1928
The economic situation of Albania in the years 1925–1928 presented a number of distinctive features that played an important role in the country’s economic development. During this period, one of the problems requiring an immediate solution was the absence of a national bank, an institution that the country had lacked and whose absence had greatly complicated its economic survival since the proclamation of Independence. For this reason, the establishment of the National Bank of Albania in March 1925 is considered a key moment in the economic developments that took place during the 1920s and 1930s. It also played an important role in the issuance and minting of national coins and banknotes. After the Albanian state succeeded in equipping itself with a banking system, in order to create a stable economic situation it secured financial assistance from the Italian state amounting to approximately 50 million gold francs. This assistance was known as SVEA, or Società per lo Sviluppo Economico dell’Albania (Society for the Economic Development of Albania), whose primary objective was the economic recovery of the country through investments mainly directed toward the construction of public works, such as roads, bridges, and ports, as well as toward the development of agriculture. The convention between the Albanian government and the Society for Economic Development (SVEA) was signed in May 1925. The investments carried out by this institution somewhat improved Albania’s economic situation in sectors such as industry, trade, communications, and infrastructure. Nevertheless, the difficult situation in the agricultural sector— the principal branch of the economy—continued to remain a matter of concern. The agreement for the establishment of the National Bank and the loan granted by SVEA were two arrangements that Ahmet Zogu, President of the Albanian Republic, managed to sign with Italy in order to continue the path of reforms that had been initiated and to transform the country’s economic situation. However, how effective were such reforms? How did the economic landscape of Albania change during the years of the Albanian Republic (1925–1928)? Drawing primarily on archival sources and a substantial body of literature, and employing the method of comparative historical analysis, this study seeks to reach as objective conclusions as possible regarding the issues raised by such questions and to contribute, albeit modestly, to the enrichment of studies on several economic aspects of the period in question.
THE ROLE OF ECONOMY AND ART IN THE SOCIAL REGULATION OF VIOLENCE
The regulation of the violence in the society was problematized in several of Rene Girard’s important works. Girard based his theory mostly on the detailed analysis of literary works but the results spurred attention within the wider academic circles. His claim is that the great literary and mythological texts cover up the truth about the human nature and the way the violence was regulated in the society. The hidden truth is anthropological in nature: it veils the true nature of the human desire. The anthropological essence of man lies in his tendency to possess the world. This tendency is deeply rooted in his desires and needs. Since his desires are unconscious, man has no contact with the reality of his needs and the objects of the desire. Man, simply does not know what he wants and his desires are, as Lacan has truculently pointed out, “the desires of the other”. The other conversely does not desire man: quite the contrary, the other is completely disinterested about human individual existence. The way to approach the other or the sacred is only through the collective by the way of the utter disrespect for the individual existence. The article attempts to investigate whether the role of this collective suppression of violence is in modern times allocated to the market economy. In addition, the text considers how art reflects on the strategy of the system to utterly suppress the mythological view on violence from its cultural representation.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT AS A KEY FACTOR IN STUDENT MOTIVATION FOR NATURAL SCIENCES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BASED ON TEACHERS' EXPERIENCE
According to the renowned educational psychologist Herbert J. Walberg, "Assessment is the most powerful corrective in teaching and learning." This research examines the essential role of formative assessment as a catalyst for enhancing student motivation within the field of natural sciences in primary education. The study focuses on the complex interaction between assessment practices and students' emotional and cognitive engagement during the learning process. The primary objective of this study is to analyze the effect produced by the consistent implementation of formative assessment on student motivation levels, as well as to identify whether significant differences exist in assessment styles among teachers with varying professional experience. Beyond the pedagogical impact, the research provides a detailed analysis of how professional experience and teaching longevity influence the frequency, type, and effectiveness of feedback provided to students. The study aims to identify methodological discrepancies between different generations of teachers in their approach toward continuous assessment. The applied methodology follows a quantitative approach, utilizing a descriptive-analytical and correlational design that allows for the identification of cause-and-effect relationships through numerical data. The research was conducted using simple random sampling across 18 primary schools in the regions of Gjilan, Vitia, and Kamenica (9 urban and 9 rural), involving a representative sample of 500 students and 100 teachers. The sample was stratified to ensure equal representation of demographic variables. The independent variable of the study is formative assessment, while the dependent variable is student motivation, considering work experience as a moderating variable. For primary data collection, three standardized instruments were employed: the questionnaire by (Tuan, H.-L., Chin, C.-C., & Shieh, S.-H., 2005) for science motivation, consisting of 22 items on a 5-point Likert scale with high internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha .976); and the scale by (Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane‐Dick, D, 2006) consisting of 10 items for feedback practices. Data collection procedures adhered to the ethical principles of anonymity, confidentiality, and informed consent. Data processing was performed using the SPSS statistical package (version 26.0), applying Pearson correlation tests to measure the strength of the relationship between variables, as well as One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with post-hoc tests (Tukey, 1949) to test differences based on experience categories. The results demonstrate that the regular use of formative tools significantly increases scientific interest, self-efficacy, and self-regulation among students. This paper offers practical recommendations for the necessity of continuous professional training, based on the findings of (Palm, T., & Andersson, C., 2017) and (Näsström, G., Gardelli, T., Lindberg, O. J., & Pettersson, F., 2021) regarding the transformation of assessment culture in primary schools.
ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN GREECE AND THE INFLUENCE OF GENDER
Environmental education offers various benefits to students, as it improves their environmental knowledge, attitudes, intentions and behavior. Within the context of special education students, environmental education can generate great opportunities for sensory experiences in nature and hands-on learning, resulting in a deeper connection between students with disabilities and the environment. Teachers play a significant role in helping students shape environmental awareness and participate in effective teaching and inclusive learning processes. Despite the importance of the above considerations, there are few studies examining teachers’ environmental attitudes and behaviors, in the case of special education in Greece. What is more, the role of gender shaping special education teachers’ environmental attitudes and behaviors is a theme that lacks investigation in literature. Under this problematic, the current study set as a goal to present the attitudes and perceptions of special education teachers towards environmental education in Greece and examined the influence of gender on their attitudes and perceptions. For the above purpose, two research questions were oriented. The first research question examined what the level of environmental attitudes and responsible behaviors of special education teachers in Greece is and the second one investigated if these attitudes and behaviors differ between the men and women. The examination of the current research work was based on quantitative method. The research process took place during February 2026 at four public school units in Athens and Thessaloniki. The research sample consisted of 50 special education teachers (90% women, 10% men). The research instrument was a closed type of questionnaire that involved two main tools, notably the Revised New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Scale and the Teacher Environmental Literacy Assessment (TELA), of which only the section "Behavior" was used. A section of demographics was also included in the questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative survey data. Analysis was conducted on SPSS statistical program v.21. According to the results, special education teachers presented a relatively high level of environmental behavior overall. The results indicate that special education teachers exhibit developed environmental awareness and frequent adoption of sustainable practices, which is particularly important given their role in shaping students' environmental awareness. With reference to gender and environmental attitudes and behaviors, small differences were observed in the current study between men and women. The current research showed that gender differences are not significant. Overall, both genders show a similar level of ecological behavior. Future research should examine environmental attitudes and behaviors of special education teachers in a larger sample, while also other variables could also be investigated as about their role in shaping these environmental attitudes and behaviors, like teachers’ educational and cultural backgrounds. Finally, it is important for teachers to integrate environmental education into their practices, to generate various beneficial outcomes for their students and help them learn in an inclusive learning environment that environmental education can guarantee. Training of teachers and skills’ development is fundamental for this purpose.
The traditional universal values of St. Clement arise from the spiritual energy of St. Clement of Ohrid and his school, through which he guided his students to progress in knowledge and charity, through the power of life's tirelessness to strive for constant learning and awareness. Saint Clement's values are the foundations upon which modern civilizational achievements are based in the space and time we live in. The creation of the Ohrid Literary School played a major role in establishing Slavic literacy among the people of Macedonia and beyond. He also laid the foundations of the first Slavic church in Macedonia as the first Slavic bishop. The work of the school enabled the formation of a clergy cadre, and a rich and extensive literary opus was created. The contribution of the Ohrid Literary School is significant in terms of ecclesiastical, educational, and political character. There is a close connection between the Ohrid School and the first Slavic alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet. Without the Glagolitic alphabet, it was not possible to translate the holy books and various literary works into a language that the people understood.Before the creation of the Pan-Slavic alphabet, the only option was to write everything that needed to be written in Latin or Greek letters. The Ohrid Literary School, over time, grew into the first Slavic university with about 3500 students. The work of the Ohrid Literary School left a significant mark on the educational development of Europe. It was a large educational center, where lectures were in the Slavic language and religious texts were translated. Through the activities of the Ohrid Literary School, with great respect for the work of their teachers, Clement and Naum enlightened the people, testified about God and showed people the way to Him. They continued the tradition of their teachers. Classes were held in churches, where students learned to write independently, transcribe, and create works in which the order and customs of the church would first be described. At the same time, they tried to highlight the work of their teachers, the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius. Over time, they managed to establish groups within the school that directly focused on different areas: one in church activity and the other in literature. This type of educational institution was conceived back in the Moravian Mission, but unfortunately, at that time, such an idea was not possible to be realized. The foundations that were laid during that period significantly helped in the establishment, conception, and development of the Ohrid Literary School. As a result of all these activities, the Glagolitic script was used for more than two centuries. The school contributed to building a strong and dedicated educational and clerical staff. The people gladly accepted the teachings of Saints Clement and Naum, strongly believed in them, and supported them. The Ohrid Literary School contributed to the city of Ohrid becoming the center of Slavic culture. The Ohrid Literary School produced a large number of educators and clergy who transmitted their own knowledge to the population in all regions where the South Slavs lived. For the first time, the Ohrid Literary School published instructive and praiseworthy articles that were acceptable and understandable to the general public, on one hand, and enabled the author, St. Clement of Ohrid, to worthily express gratitude to his teachers, emphasizing the immense importance of their work for the Slavic people, on the other hand.
REPUBLIC OF NORTH MACEDONIA: THREE DECADES OF BENEFITS FROM THE EUROPEAN POLITICAL AND SECURITY ARCHITECTURE
Last year marked three decades since the Republic of North Macedonia joined the Council of Europe and the OSCE, joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace program, and established diplomatic relations with the EU. These entities are an important segment of the European and Euro-Atlantic political and security architecture. The Republic of North Macedonia (then under the provisional reference) became a full member of the Council of Europe on 9 November 1995, thereby committing itself to respecting the principles of democracy, the rule of law, and human rights. This membership marked the beginning of the country’s integration into European democratic structures. The Republic’s accession to the Council of Europe is one of the most significant events for it, since the declaration of its independence. With it, the Republic joined the European system of law and democracy and created legal standards that significantly influenced the construction and functioning of the Macedonian constitutional system, and within it, especially the judicial system. The Republic of North Macedonia was admitted to the OSCE in 1992, when the OSCE Mission in Skopje was established with the aim of preventing the spillover of conflicts from the region. The country actively cooperates with the organization, and in 2023 it also took over the chairmanship of this world's largest regional security organization. The Republic's admission to the OSCE is a rational and very useful step towards building its security system. Its membership in the OSCE contributed to its internal stability, included it in the European security system and helped in the democratic transformation of society after the declaration of independence. Partnership for Peace (PfP) is a NATO program aimed at cooperation and building trust between NATO members and other countries in Europe and the former USSR. Currently, PfP has 21 member states. The Republic of Macedonia was a member of PfP from 15 November 1995 until 27 March 2020, when it became a member of NATO. The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Macedonia and the European Union was delayed due to the opposition of the Republic of Greece to recognizing the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name. However, full diplomatic relations between the Republic of Macedonia and the European Union were established in December 1995, when the Republic's mission to the European Union was opened. The establishment of diplomatic relations of the Republic with the European Union is its most strategically important foreign policy move after the declaration of independence. With it, the country has focused on the European political and economic system and has created a framework for deep legal and institutional reforms. The paper analyzes the benefits of the Republic of North Macedonia from its previous membership in the Council of Europe, the OSCE, as well as from the establishment of diplomatic relations with the European Union with a special emphasis on political, economic and security aspects.
ASSESSMENT OF THE EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS OF THE WESTERN BALKANS THROUGH SWOT ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE MEMBERSHIP DELAY
The European integration process of the Western Balkans (WB) represents one of the strategic priorities of the European Union (EU) for the stability, security and democratic development of the region. However, the continuous delay of membership and the lack of a clear time perspective have raised important dilemmas regarding the effectiveness and credibility of this process. This paper aims to assess the European integration process of the WB through a SWOT analysis, placing it in the context of the delay of membership in the EU. The methodology of the study is based on the qualitative analysis of official documents of the EU, reports of international institutions and contemporary academic literature. The results show that, despite the symbolic progress of the WB countries in the harmonization of laws and few institutional reforms, the European integration process is facing structural weaknesses such as the lack of administrative capacities, the politicization of institutions and the decline of public trust. The delay in accession itself creates serious threats, including increased Euroscepticism, the exodus of human capital and the increasing influence of external actors in the region. Moreover, the lack of a clear perspective for the countries of the region for EU membership has weakened the motivation for deep reforms and contributed to the politicization of reform processes, while the identified weaknesses in the rule of law and institutional capacities have been reinforced by the delay in integration. The paper concludes that a more credible, meritorious and predictable approach to enlargement is essential for preserving the transformative role of the EU and for guaranteeing the long-term stability of the WB.
THE UNEXPECTED SILVER LININGS FOR EUROPE AS A RESULT OF THE GREENLAND CRISIS
In early 2026 United States president Donald Trump’s proclamations regarding the need for his country to acquire Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland), including potentially through the use of military force, sparked an unprecedented diplomatic crisis, which was regarded by a number of analysts as likely to cause significant ruptures within NATO and even compromise the future of the alliance. While Trump’s comments pertaining to the necessity of the USA gaining full control over the autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark were initially dismissed, even in expert circles, as constituting little more than rhetorical exercises, by mid-January 2026 Trump’s threats that he would take over Greenland by any and all means at his disposal came to be viewed as credible, causing alarm in Denmark and among the other member states of NATO. Subsequently, Operation Arctic Endurance was launched, which constituted a Danish-led deployment of military personnel from various member states of NATO intended to establish a presence in Greenland, ostensibly in response to Chinese and Russian ambitions in the Arctic, but in practice constituting a deterrence exercise aimed at the United States. The paper employs qualitative methodology, which is reliant on the integrated analysis of a vast collection of primary and secondary sources that fall within the international relations, political science, and sociology disciplines. It advances a threefold argument. Firstly, it contends that Operation Arctic Endurance demonstrated that Europe is not to be underestimated when it comes to its capacity for decisive action, with the military activity in question successfully dissuading Trump and allowing the European countries to essentially emerge unscathed from the crisis. Secondly, from the standpoint of Denmark, the Greenland crisis may actually turn out to be beneficial in terms of further enhancing the prospects for the retention of the status quo between Greenland and metropolitan Denmark. Thirdly, the military exercise on the territory of Greenland may offer a blueprint for a successful European troop deployment in Western and Central Ukraine, even without the explicit or implicit permission of the United States, in case the momentum in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian war decisively shifts in favor of Russia or a sufficiently robust security guarantee has to be provided to Ukraine in the context of an initially unsatisfactory peace settlement. Thus, in addition to staving off the presumably imminent threat to Greenland, at least in the short-term, Arctic Endurance may in the medium- to long-term allow for a psychological decoupling of Europe from the United States and bring about a boost to the strategic autonomy of European countries.
POLICE LEADERSHIP AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AS KEY DETERMINANTS OF EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SECURITY: THE CASE OF NORTH MACEDONIA
This study addresses the central role of police leadership and professional education in strengthening the capacities of the Police of the Republic of North Macedonia (RNM), placing it within a comparative framework with small European countries such as Slovenia, Estonia, and Croatia. The methodological approach is analytical-comparative, relying on contemporary scholarly literature, institutional reports, and official statistical data. The paper begins with an analysis of leadership models – traditional, transformational, and situational – highlighting the shortcomings of the current hierarchical model in RNM. The importance of continuous education and training is emphasized to foster a professional and ethical organizational culture. This includes modernizing the Police Academy, developing ethics modules, and creating mechanisms for citizen engagement. Statistical analyses and comparative tables reveal structural and cultural challenges, including the lack of professional mentoring, meritocracy, and digital support. At the same time, opportunities for improvement through technological investments and collaboration with international institutions such as CEPOL and OSCE are explored. The study provides concrete recommendations for transformation, including the adoption of modern leadership models, strengthening education and professional ethics, increasing transparency through community engagement, and building a sustainable training system. Ultimately, achieving a modern, transparent, and trusted police force requires a comprehensive approach, political will, and long-term investment in professional and ethical standards within the security system.
FOREIGN MEDIA AND THE PUBLIC INTEREST – POLITICAL INFLUENCE OR A CONTRIBUTION TO DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT
This paper analyzes the role of foreign media in promoting the public interest in Bosnia and Herzegovina within the context of a politically fragmented and economically vulnerable media system. The research focuses on the activities of international media actors such as Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Al Jazeera Balkans, which over the past decades have represented an important source of alternative information and professional journalistic standards in the Western Balkans region. The methodological framework is based on a qualitative approach that includes an analysis of relevant academic literature and semi structured interviews with university professors and experts in media and communication studies. The results indicate that foreign media have contributed to information pluralism and the promotion of issues of public interest, particularly in the areas of anti corruption efforts, human rights, and political accountability. At the same time, respondents emphasize that the activities of these media outlets should also be viewed within the broader context of international communication strategies and the concept of soft power. The analysis further shows that international financial support has significantly influenced the development of the media sector, as international donors have invested tens of millions of euros in the development of media and journalistic capacities in Bosnia and Herzegovina over the past decades. In the context of declining international funding and the closure of certain foreign editorial offices, questions arise regarding the sustainability of the domestic media system and its capacity to independently ensure information pluralism and the protection of the public interest.
POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR NORTH MACEDONIA AND KOSOVO OF THE DELAY IN MEMBERSHIP IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
The European integration process of the Western Balkans (WB) represents one of the strategic priorities of the European Union (EU) for the stability, security and democratic development of the region. However, the continuous delay of membership and the lack of a clear time perspective have raised important dilemmas regarding the effectiveness and credibility of this process. This paper aims to assess the European integration process of the two neighbouring countries of the Western Balkans, placing it in the context of the delay of EU membership. The methodology of the study is based on the qualitative analysis of official EU documents, reports of international institutions, SWOT analysis and contemporary academic literature. The results show that, despite the symbolic progress of the above-mentioned countries in the harmonization of laws and few institutional reforms, the European integration process is facing structural weaknesses such as the lack of administrative capacities, the politicization of institutions and the decline of public trust. The delay in accession itself creates serious threats, including rising Euroscepticism, an exodus of human capital, and the growing influence of external actors in the region. Moreover, the lack of clear EU support for resolving the two countries’ neighbouring disputes has weakened the motivation for deep reforms and contributed to the politicisation of reforms and the emergence of weaknesses in the rule of law and weak institutional capacities. The article concludes that a more proactive EU approach to enlargement through unstinting support for the path of North Macedonia and Kosovo would also encourage the process of genuine reforms and restore citizens’ trust in the EU, while the EU integration process would be seen as a reality rather than an unattainable dream for them.
YEARS OF TURBULENT TURNING POINTS: NATIONAL PROJECTS IN KOSOVO BETWEEN ALBANIAN NATIONALISM AND COMMUNISM (1943–1948)
This paper examines the complex political and ideological dynamics in Kosovo during the period 1943–1948, focusing on the antagonism between the project of Albanian nationalists and that of Albanian communists aligned with the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY). While in most parts of Europe during these years the war against the Axis powers was approaching its end and geopolitical interests were stabilizing — peace was being established and the reconstruction of societies devastated by war had begun — in Kosovo the conflict did not cease. On the contrary, it resumed in a context marked by political uncertainty and contradictory demands, particularly between the aspiration for national affirmation and self-determination of Albanians and Kosovo — promised within the ideological discourse of Yugoslav communism — and the subsequent disappointment resulting from Kosovo’s remaining within Serbia/Yugoslavia. One of the primary aims of this paper is to argue that the anti-communism of this political, military and clandestine movement at that time was directed against communism as an ideology in general — both against communism in Yugoslavia and against communism in Albania. This dualist character would not remain present for many decades afterward, neither in Albanian political thought in Kosovo, nor among illegal organizations and groups, nor among Albanian communists in Yugoslavia. Consequently, as demonstrated through a comparative analytical approach, the findings of this paper suggest that Albanian political thought of that time exhibited a particularly high level of functional religious tolerance, perhaps among the most developed in modern Albanian history. At the same time, the geographical scope of anti-communist activity at that scale would never again be repeated in later periods among other Albanian movements. The paper also attempts to answer why, during this period, no other political alternative emerged for Albanians and Kosovo beyond the two dominant projects: communism and fascism. The lack of international support for the Kosovo question had a long-term impact on the development of Albanian political thought. For a long time, political thought among Kosovo Albanians would be influenced both by Yugoslav communism and by the Albanian communist model under Enver Hoxha. As a consequence, the liberal-democratic reforms that later spread across most of Eastern Europe were delayed in Kosovo.
THE MARGIN OF APPRECIATION IN THE PROTECTION OF FREEDOM OF RELIGION: THE PRACTICE OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE NATIONAL CONTEXT
This research provides an overview of the application of the margin of appreciation in limiting the right to freedom of religion under Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). The main objective is to determine the scope of state discretion when restricting the external manifestation of religious beliefs (forum externum) and to examine how the principle of proportionality is applied in balancing individual rights and the public interest. The research focuses on national legal frameworks and their compliance with European standards, as well as on the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, which has developed the doctrine of the margin of appreciation. The methodology is normative-dogmatic, combined with comparative analysis and analysis of relevant case law. The normative analysis includes the Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia (1991), the Law on the Legal Status of a Church, Religious Community and Religious Group (2007), the Law on Prevention and Protection against Discrimination (2020), as well as international instruments such as the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). The comparative method allows a comparison of national legal solutions with the standards established in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights. The analysis of case law shows that the Court recognizes a certain degree of discretion for national authorities, particularly in sensitive matters related to the cultural and historical context of a country (Kokkinakis v. Greece, 1993; Lautsi v. Italy, 2011; S.A.S. v. France, 2014). The analysis of national legislation indicates that legal provisions provide a framework for restricting forum externum, while also revealing the need for additional criteria of proportionality and greater transparency in the reasoning of decisions. The results show that the margin of appreciation and the proportionality test provide a stable legal framework for achieving a balance between individual rights and the public interest. State discretion may be used to regulate religious activities, but any restriction must be clearly prescribed by law, pursue a legitimate aim, be necessary in a democratic society and be proportionate. The combination of national legislation and judicial practice provides a structured framework that minimizes the risk of arbitrariness, increases legal predictability and strengthens citizens’ trust in the legal system. Based on the results of the research, it can be concluded that the protection of freedom of religion is most effective when clear legal criteria, continuous judicial control and transparency in the procedures for assessing proportionality are ensured. Further clarification of the criteria for applying the proportionality test and the strengthening of transparency when restricting freedom of religion are recommended. The research contributes to a deeper understanding of the application of the margin of appreciation doctrine within the national legal system and its compliance with European human rights standards.
SOCIAL NORMS AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN BULGARIA
In sociology, social norms are usually understood as written or unwritten expectations of actions and behavior within predefined typical social interactions. From a theoretical point of view, social norms play an important role in explaining violence against women, insofar as they set expectations for men’s and women's behavior in different contexts (e.g., in the family), including in the context of interactions involving violence to which they are subjected. Social norms related to the roles played by men and women are not the only ones that can influence the wider spread of violence against women. Social norms that normalize violence itself can also play a role. The social legitimacy of violence is greater the more widespread the beliefs are that the perpetrator has the right to use violence and that the victim deserves the violence inflicted upon her. In addition, social norms contribute to the normalization and social legitimization not only of physical and sexual violence against women, but also of other forms of violence, such as psychological and emotional violence. In these cases, the perpetrator activates gender stereotypes, making the victim believe that she herself is the cause of the feelings and emotions she experiences. In addition, social norms influence the behavior of women who have experienced violence, including their tendency to turn to formal or informal sources of support. Thus, the decision of women who have experienced violence to seek support is largely determined by their own perceptions of the social norms shared by the community. Based on data from a nationally representative survey of the population over 18 years of age in Bulgaria, conducted between January 16 and February 24, 2025 among 1,017 respondents using the direct standardized interview method, this report describes the prevailing social norms regarding violence against women and analyzes their impact on its prevalence in its various forms (physical, sexual, economic, psychological, and emotional) in Bulgaria. It has been established that although violence against women is generally considered a public problem, there are still culturally conditioned perceptions that it belongs more to the private sphere. This, in turn, leads to the emergence of social norms that legitimize certain forms of violence against women and reinforce the belief that, in gender relations, certain forms of violence by men do not go beyond the generally accepted boundaries of the typical male role. In this regard, there is also evidence that such beliefs are shared by a significant proportion of women. As a result, not all manifestations of violence are recognized as such and are not reported by victims, which in turn leads to an underestimation of the true extent of this negative phenomenon
ANXIETY IN MIDDLE-AGED ADULTS IN THE “EMPTY NEST” PHASE
Transitions in the adult life cycle can have significant psychological effects, with the “empty nest” phase—when adult children leave the parental home—being particularly sensitive and meaningful. Although empty nest syndrome has been associated with loneliness, depression, and stress, empirical evidence regarding anxiety in middle-aged adults remains limited. This cross-sectional study examined levels of anxiety and the association between anxiety, gender, social support, and perceived role change among adults in the empty nest phase.The sample consisted of 64 participants (aged 45–60 years) who completed the adapted DASS instrument (anxiety subscale) and a demographic questionnaire. The sample consisted of 64 middle-aged participants (54.7% women; mean age = 52 years) who had at least one adult child who had left home. Anxiety was measured using the Anxiety subscale of the DASS-21. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, correlation analyses, and multiple regression were conducted. Results indicated that 53% of participants reported moderate to extremely severe levels of anxiety (M = 10.9 ± 4.5), suggesting that the empty nest transition may constitute a psychologically vulnerable period. Women demonstrated significantly higher anxiety scores than men (t = 3.1, p = 0.003). Social support was negatively correlated with anxiety (r = -0.46, p < 0.001), whereas perceived role change was positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.52, p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis revealed that female gender (β = 0.28, p = 0.007), lower social support (β = -0.34, p < 0.001), and greater perceived role change (β = 0.41, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of anxiety, explaining 42% of the variance (R² = 0.42).The results indicated elevated anxiety in a significant portion of the sample, suggesting the need for interventions to support psychological well-being during this critical life transition.Additionally, the study showed that women in the sample had higher average levels of anxiety compared to men, consistent with previous research on gender differences in psychological vulnerability. Social support emerged as a significant protective factor, as participants reporting higher levels of support from family, friends, or the community demonstrated lower anxiety. Perceived role change, particularly among those who experienced it as substantial, was strongly associated with higher anxiety levels. Psychological stress related to adjusting to new roles and the absence of daily child-related responsibilities may increase the prevalence of anxiety symptoms.These findings highlight the importance of developing psychosocial interventions focused on stress management training, relaxation techniques, and mental health support within family and social contexts. The results also emphasize the need to consider individual differences in the experience of the empty nest and to develop personalized coping strategies. Psychological interventions may include group sessions, psychoeducation, cognitive-behavioral techniques, and activities aimed at enhancing social connectedness. The study further suggests that preventive measures prior to children leaving home could reduce anxiety and facilitate the transition. Overall, the findings indicate a complex interaction between personal characteristics, social environment, and gender differences as determinants of anxiety in middle adulthood.
THE STRATEGY OF NOISE CANCELLATION IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE WORLD
Michel Serres is rather unknown French philosopher who, despite having published almost 40 major works, is still an enigma for the wider critical community. His large opus is mainly dealing with the effect of the concepts of noise and the parasite to different areas of investigation. This article deals with the informational, scientific, anthropological, economic and political dimension of his theory. Although noise is our body, the nature in us, over the centuries the science has been developing sets of protocols of noise cancellation designed to stabilize the order against the perturbations of the environment. This Hobbesian fear of the adverse effects of human nature gave rise to various protective systems: from parliamentary monarchy to cybernetic feedback protocols and commercial noise cancellation headphones, the noise has been widely prevented from infecting the closed system of the governance, economic activity and the bodily behavior. The digital era has been especially effective in mobilizing the autophagic noise diets set to isolate the social body from the harm noise, if left untreated, may produce. Every example of the noisy behavior, be it hacking, political unrest, immigration and terrorism, even the noise from the vehicles on the street and the human conversation has been canceled by installing the surplus noise that as a negative feedback stabilizes the system to its original state. The question the article poses is what kind of society are we heading towards once the threat of noise is successfully deterred.
THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC MOTOR SPACE ON ATHLETIC DISCIPLINE 6KG SHOT PUT
The development of specific motor skills is a key element for achieving top results in a particular sport. These skills are directly related to the specific requirements of a particular sports discipline because they enable athletes to perform skilled movements with great efficiency and accuracy. In this direction, this research was conducted, which included a sample of 250 male respondents, aged 17, students from two municipal high schools in Kičevo (“Drita” and “Mirko Mileski”). The main goal was to determine the influence of predictor variables, represented through a set of 13 specific motor tests, on the criterion variable - 6kg shot put. The obtained data were processed with appropriate parametric statistical methods. Basic descriptive statistics and regression analysis were calculated to determine the influence of predictor variables on the criterion variable. According to the obtained results, the system of predictor specific motor variables has a statistically significant influence at the level (p=0.00) on the criterion variable - 6kg shot put. Also, the results obtained from the study create a large space for optimal planning and programming of physical education teaching. The precise identification of specific motor skills that can contribute to achieving higher results in this discipline reflects its practical value. Meanwhile, the possibility of generalizing the results is limited by gender and age category. We believe that by conducting such similar research, which will include both the female gender and other age categories, the scientific validity, as well as the practical applicability of the obtained results, will increase. This will also lead to the possibility of broader generalization, appropriate curricula and programs, as well as better programming of training processes by developing the specific motor skills necessary for the respective sport.